Documents published in Scipedia

• PLENARY LECTURE - Machine learning tools for the treatment of offshore site investigations

  B. Stuyts*

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  During geotechnical and geophysical site characterisation for large infrastructure projects, significant data volumes are being collected which need to be processed and interpreted. Due to the limited budgets available for site characterisation and the various sources of uncertainty, the interpretation relies on a combination of data from various sources (e.g. in-situ and laboratory tests), the use of parameter correlations from the literature and expert judgement. In recent years, modern data science techniques have become increasingly accessible to practicing engineers and researchers and they offer the possibility to improve several aspects of the site characterisation and parameter selection process. Machine learning models can be trained on high-quality datasets and expert judgement can also be internalised in the model formulations. In this contribution, the role of data science and machine learning for geotechnical site characterisation is discussed based on several example applications using datasets from offshore wind farm projects. The role of data coverage and data quality is discussed as well as the role of geophysical data for interpolating geotechnical point measurements in a quantitative way. Supervised and unsupervised machine learning techniques are explained and illustrated on the provided datasets. Finally, a perspective is given on the role of the emerging Large Language Models (LLM) for geotechnical site characterisation applications.

  Abstract
  During geotechnical and geophysical site characterisation for large infrastructure projects, significant data volumes are being collected which need to be processed and interpreted. [...]

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• PLENARY LECTURE - Bio-inspired site characterization - towards soundings with lightweight equipment

  A. Martinez, Y. Chen, R. Anilkumar

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Equipment used for site investigation activities like drill rigs are typically large and heavy to provide sufficient reaction mass to overcome the soil’s penetration resistance. The need for large and heavy equipment creates challenges for performing site investigations at sites with limited accessibility, such as urban centres, vegetated areas, locations with height restrictions and surficial soft soils, and steep slopes. Also, mobilization of large equipment to the project site is responsible for a significant portion of the carbon footprint of site investigations. Successful development of selfburrowing technology can have enormous implications for geotechnical site investigation, ranging from performance of in-situ tests to installation of instrumentation without the need of heavy equipment. During the last decade there has been an acceleration of research in the field of bio-inspired geotechnics, whose premise is that certain animals and plants have developed efficient strategies to interact with geomaterials in ways that are analogous to those in geotechnical engineering. This paper provides a synthesis of advances in bio-inspired site investigation related to the (i) reduction of penetration resistance by means of modifying the tip shape, expanding a shaft section near the probe tip, applying motions to the tip like rotation and oscillation, and injecting fluids and (ii) generation of reaction forces with temporary anchors that enable self-burrowing. Examples of prototypes that have been tested experimentally are highlighted. However, there are important research gaps associated with testing in a broader range of conditions, interpretation of results, and development of hardware that need to be addressed to develop field-ready equipment that can provide useful data for geotechnical design.

  Abstract
  Equipment used for site investigation activities like drill rigs are typically large and heavy to provide sufficient reaction mass to overcome the soil’s penetration resistance. [...]

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• Impact of evolving fabric anisotropy on CPT simulations for subsurface characterization

  S. Moshfeghi, M. Taiebat*, A. Lizcano

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  In geotechnical site characterization, Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) is a fundamental method for evaluating subsurface conditions of granular materials such as sands, silts, and non-plastic tailings. This study advances CPT simulations by incorporating the fabric anisotropy variable A into the SANISAND-F model and utilizing the Material Point Method (MPM), with a specific focus on the role of evolving fabric within an anisotropic critical state framework. The objective is to deepen the understanding of how the evolving fabric of soils influences macroscopic site characterization outcomes. Through carefully controlled initial conditions, including void ratio and confining pressure, the study aims to demonstrate the impact of fabric anisotropy on CPT resistance measurements. Assessment of the evolution of material state based on the key constitutive ingredient of the model allows for explaining the reason behind the respective values of cone tip resistance observed from the CPT simulations, considering fabric anisotropy and the anisotropic critical state framework. This approach enhances the modeling of this site characterization method, providing a more comprehensive framework for interpreting soil mechanical behavior and enhancing predictive modeling capabilities

  Abstract
  In geotechnical site characterization, Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) is a fundamental method for evaluating subsurface conditions of granular materials such as sands, silts, [...]

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• Use of the Pocket G-PFEM to Predict Changes in Soil State

  J. Carneiro*, M. Junior, A. Faria, G. Pinto

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Simulating the CPTu response to changes in the current soil state allows geotechnical engineers to evaluate different scenarios and better predict the structure’s performance. Developed by the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Centre Internacional de Mètodes Numèrics en Enginyeria and TU Graz, the Pocket G-PFEM is a numerical tool that simulates the CPTu in a homogeneous soil layer, adopting an updated Lagrangian description. Two types of cones can be simulated: i) the smooth cone, without lateral friction in the interface cone/soil, and ii) the rough cone, with lateral friction. The Clay and Sand Model is adopted as the soil constitutive model. This study assessed the software response to changes in the overconsolidation ratio (OCR) and compressibility parameters (λ and κ) in both cone modules. The rough cone analyses resulted in higher qt and u1 than the smooth cone, but no significant change was observed in u2 and u3. The Pocket GPFEM could partially reproduce the expected behaviours from the literature, but u2 and u3 did not decrease significantly for high OCRs, and the rough cone could not adequately simulate the fs. Following the literature, qt was mainly sensitive to λ for the OCR = 1 and to κ for the OCR = 2, but an unexpected behaviour was observed for the OCR = 8 when changing λ and κ. The results show Pocket G-PFEM’s limitation in reproducing qt, fs, and u for high OCRs. It might be related to the adopted parameters, and different sets should be evaluated.

  Abstract
  Simulating the CPTu response to changes in the current soil state allows geotechnical engineers to evaluate different scenarios and better predict the structure’s performance. [...]

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• Types of Shearing and Anisotropy in Undrained CPTu

  D. Durán*, L. Monforte, M. Arroyo, A. Gens

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Most natural clays acquire an anisotropic fabric upon deposition. This anisotropic fabric induces differences in the soil mechanical responses, for instance in the undrained shear strength observed in the laboratory. It is unclear how much of that anisotropy is reflected on the responses measured by the cone penetration test. In this work, we use GPFEM to numerically simulate cone penetration tests (CPTu) in undrained, anisotropic clays. The constitutive response is represented by S-CLAY1, a critical state, anisotropic model. Full details of the representative stress path during CPTu insertion are provided. Preliminary numerical results suggest that even a large amount of anisotropy, as described by the model, will have a very small effect on the cone responses. The numerical simulation results also show that the prevailing stress path has strong similitudes with that found during anisotropically-consolidated undrained compression triaxial test.

  Abstract
  Most natural clays acquire an anisotropic fabric upon deposition. This anisotropic fabric induces differences in the soil mechanical responses, for instance in the undrained [...]

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• Analysis of Video Images obtained during Cone Penetration Testing

  G. Verbeek*, O. Khomiak, W. Bond

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  One of the ways to enhance the efficiency of the cone penetration testing process is to mount modules behind the cone. In this way the test will not only generate the standard Cone Penetration Testing (CPT) data (i.e., cone tip resistance, sleeve friction, and dynamic pore water pressure), but also the data obtained by the module pushed into the soil together with the cone. While for certain modules it is common practice to analyze the acquired data extensively (e.g., the seismic module) for other modules this is not necessarily the case. A good example of the latter is the video module, which has been available for several decades. When this module is deployed with visible light, the analysis is typically limited to viewing the recording and adding observation notes. During the recent TRIM4 research project the video module was deployed and subsequently attempts were made to identify the soil type through an automatic analysis of the video images and to characterize and to determine the grain size distribution using the video images. This approach is highly correlated with the soil behavior type index, commonly used in the analysis of CPT data, and at the same time mitigates the effect of the CPT data reflecting changes in soil strength behavior before a layer is actually penetrated by the cone. In this paper the authors will describe the use of the video cone in very general terms, but focus on this analysis methodology in detail

  Abstract
  One of the ways to enhance the efficiency of the cone penetration testing process is to mount modules behind the cone. In this way the test will not only generate the standard [...]

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• Interpretation of cone pressuremeter tests to estimate the strain dependent stiffness and strength of sensitive lacustrine clay

  J. Schorr*, R. Cudmani, S. Vogt

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Field and laboratory testing was carried out for the construction of a 100 m long cable stayed bridge situated in the foothills of the Alps in the south of Germany, a region dominated by deep post-glacial, fine-grained sediments. Due to the sensitivity and associated challenges with retrieving undisturbed soil samples in situ tests and their evaluation proved to be essential for the geotechnical design of the bridge foundation. This contribution focuses on the analytical and numerical interpretation of Cone Pressuremeter Tests (CPM). The non-linear 𝐺-𝛾 relationship and undrained shear strength (using both the limit pressure and reverse plasticity contraction analysis) were determined analytically. Numerical investigations were carried out as verification using both the Finite Element method (FEM) using both 1D (cavity expansion) and 2D simulations (where the penetration of the probe was modelled) as well as using the Finite Difference (FD) method. 2D simulations demonstrated that the assumption of the cylindrical cavity expansion is appropriate for modelling the CPM tests. The interpreted undrained shear strength showed good agreement with other field tests, including CPTu, vane shear (FVT) and seismic cone penetration (SCPT) tests, as well as with the results of laboratory tests on disturbed samples. CPM tests with strain rate jumps were conducted during pressuremeter expansion, wherewith it was possible to quantify the viscous response of the soil. Based on the holistic interpretation of the field and laboratory results involving both numerical simulations and analytical methods the parameters for the material model Viscohypoplasticity were calibrated.

  Abstract
  Field and laboratory testing was carried out for the construction of a 100 m long cable stayed bridge situated in the foothills of the Alps in the south of Germany, a region [...]

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• Plant Root Circumnutation-Inspired Penetration in Sand and Clay

  R. Anilkumar*, A. Martinez

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Site investigation (SI) and subsurface exploration are vital for characterizing soil properties. However, a common challenge is the lack of sufficient reaction force to penetrate through stiff crusts or deep layers, leading to refusal. To address this issue, rigs typically have large sizes that can make mobility and accessibility challenging and increase the carbon footprint of SI activities. This paper experimentally investigates a plant root-inspired strategy called circumnutation-inspired motion (CIM) to reduce the vertical penetration forces (𝐹𝑧) in comparison to quasi-static penetration used for example for Cone Penetration Testing (CPT). The CIM probes have a bent tip end and are rotated at a constant angular velocity (𝜔) while they are advanced at a constant vertical velocity (𝑣) in uniform specimens of clay and sand. 𝐹𝑧 for both soils decay exponentially by factors as high as 10 with increasing relative velocity, defined as the ratio of the tangential to the vertical velocity of the probe tip (𝜔𝑅/𝑣). Torques for both soils increase with initial increases in 𝜔𝑅/𝑣 which stabilize at higher velocities. While the cumulative total work, calculated for both clay and sand from the measured forces and torques, increases less than 25% for initial increases in 𝜔𝑅/𝑣 between 0 and 0.3𝜋, the 𝐹𝑧 can be reduced by around 50%. Thus, CIM penetration can produce significant reductions in 𝐹𝑧 in comparison to CPTs while limiting the additional energy consumed. CIM could be implemented to perform site investigation activities, such as obtaining samples or installing sensors, using smaller-sized, light-weight rigs

  Abstract
  Site investigation (SI) and subsurface exploration are vital for characterizing soil properties. However, a common challenge is the lack of sufficient reaction force to penetrate [...]

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• G-PFEM-aided Derivation of Undrained Shear Strength of Organic Clays from CPT Data

  A. Halleux, K. Boschi*, L. Flessati, C. Jommi

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Accurate evaluation of undrained shear strength of soils is crucial in geotechnical design and assessment. In the practice, undrained shear strength is obtained most frequently from CPT data, dividing the net cone tip resistance by a cone factor, 𝑁 . For organic soils, values between 8.6 and 15.3 are reported, depending on the stress history. The cone factor can be conditioned to the results of laboratory tests, although uncertainties remain on the variety of stress paths followed by the soil elements around the tip of the cone, compared to the ones tested in the laboratory. Non-uniqueness in the definition of the cone factor may lead to either unsafe or over-conservative choices, partly undermining both the reliability and the sustainability of the design. This contribution analyses numerically the inversion technique used to determine the undrained shear strength of organic clays, exploiting data from an extensive in situ and laboratory investigation. The adopted constitutive model was calibrated on the results of laboratory tests. Cone penetration tests were simulated performing coupled hydro-mechanical numerical analyses via G-PFEM, developed in the last decade at CIMNE-UPC. The role played by initial stress state and previous stress history upon stress distribution at failure, cone factor and sleeve friction is discussed. The numerical results suggest how the sleeve friction could be used to condition the cone factor depending on the over-consolidation ratio and demonstrate how combining the different available CPT readings with the aid of numerical results may reduce the uncertainty in the estimation of undrained shear strength.

  Abstract
  Accurate evaluation of undrained shear strength of soils is crucial in geotechnical design and assessment. In the practice, undrained shear strength is obtained most frequently [...]

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• A numerical analysis of CPT-based tip resistance prediction during pile installation in clays

  S. zhou*, W. Zhang, A. Osman

  ISC2024.

  
  

  Abstract

  Accurately predicting the installation resistance of offshore piles is important for their design and application. The cone penetration test (CPT) is the most widely used in situ sounding tests for pile drivability analysis and capacity prediction. While there are established empirical correlation methods to connect CPT data with pile installation resistance, the underlying mechanisms behind these correlations have yet to be fully understood. This study performs a numerical analysis to reveal such mechanisms and improve the correlations. The pile installation and cone penetration processes are modelled using a large-deformation finite-element method. For all analyses, a smooth cone and a smooth pile are simulated to quantify the relationship of tip resistance between the pile and CPT. The mechanisms of the two analogous penetration processes are visualized and compared through numerical modelling. As the cone advances, it pushes the soil at the cone tip into the far field. During the pile penetration process, soil heaving can be observed with the soil surface inside the pile moving above the mudline. The soil failure is localized at a small zone around the pile tip. The penetration resistances of pile are correlated to CPT data with the aid of numerical modelling and compared to existing CPT-based design guidelines. A discussion on the pile tip resistance correlated with cone tip resistance is included, and the value of the empirical coefficient for tip resistance kp is obtained.

  Abstract
  Accurately predicting the installation resistance of offshore piles is important for their design and application. The cone penetration test (CPT) is the most widely used [...]

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