Zhang et al 2016aa - Revision history

Scipediacontent at 07:02, 7 April 2017

2017-04-07T07:02:45Z

Scipediacontent at 07:01, 7 April 2017

2017-04-07T07:01:59Z

Scipediacontent at 07:01, 7 April 2017

2017-04-07T07:01:38Z

Scipediacontent at 07:01, 7 April 2017

2017-04-07T07:01:13Z

Scipediacontent: Scipediacontent moved page Draft Content 374795247 to Zhang et al 2016aa

2017-04-06T13:25:18Z

Scipediacontent moved page Draft Content 374795247 to Zhang et al 2016aa

Scipediacontent: Created page with "====ABSTRACT==== After the first concrete was poured on December 9, 2012 at the Shidao Bay site in Rongcheng, Shandong Province, China, the construction of the reactor buildi..."

2017-04-06T13:23:33Z

Created page with "====ABSTRACT==== After the first concrete was poured on December 9, 2012 at the Shidao Bay site in Rongcheng, Shandong Province, China, the construction of the reactor buildi..."

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 |}
-To date, supply contracts have been signed for all the components of the HTR-PM project. From the actual contract costs, we can compare the detailed capital costs of a 2 × 600 MW<sub>e</sub>  multi-module HTR-PM plant with those of a real 2 × 600 MW<sub>e</sub>  PWR plant constructed at the same time in China. Using the capital costs of the HTR-PM plant as evaluated by the government in 2014, the total price of a 2 × 600 MW<sub>e</sub>  multi-module HTR-PM plant is about 110%−120% of the price of the PWR. The electricity price to the grid thus increases from 0.4 CNY·(kW·h)<sup>−1</sup>  to 0.48 CNY·(kW·h)<sup>−1</sup> , which is still much lower than the costs of gas, wind power, and solar power in the Chinese market. The costs of the RPV and reactor internals are very small, about 2% of the total plant costs. Therefore, assuming that the other costs of the plant are unchanged, even if the costs of the RPV and reactor internals increase to 10 times their original value, the increase of the total plant costs can be limited to within 20%. This is the reason behind the above economic evaluation results; details can be found in Ref. [[[#bib7|7]] ].
+To date, supply contracts have been signed for all the components of the HTR-PM project. From the actual contract costs, we can compare the detailed capital costs of a 2 × 600 MW<sub>e</sub>  multi-module HTR-PM plant with those of a real 2 × 600 MW<sub>e</sub>  PWR plant constructed at the same time in China. Using the capital costs of the HTR-PM plant as evaluated by the government in 2014, the total price of a 2 × 600 MW<sub>e</sub>  multi-module HTR-PM plant is about 110%−120% of the price of the PWR. The electricity price to the grid thus increases from 0.4 CNY·(kW·h)<sup>−1</sup>  to 0.48 CNY·(kW·h)<sup>−1</sup> , which is still much lower than the costs of gas, wind power, and solar power in the Chinese market. The costs of the RPV and reactor internals are very small, about 2% of the total plant costs. Therefore, assuming that the other costs of the plant are unchanged, even if the costs of the RPV and reactor internals increase to 10 times their original value, the increase of the total plant costs can be limited to within 20%. This is the reason behind the above economic evaluation results; details can be found in Ref. [ [[#bib7|7]] ].
 To realize the dream of inherent safety, the philosophy of “dividing 1 into N” is adopted, and to limit the cost increase, the philosophy of “combining ''N''  into 1” is preferred.
 ==5. Concluding remarks==

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 Each canister has a capacity of 40 000 spent fuel spheres and can be placed in the spent fuel storage building with concrete shields. Since data is lacking on metal corrosion near the sea, forced ventilation is used by air flow in a closed cycle. In a loss-of-power accident, the decay heat can be removed by the natural air circulation. The canister can also be placed in a standard LWR transport cask and be transported if necessary.
-The experimental reactor consortium (AVR) test pebble-bed HTGR in Germany has been in operation for 21 years, from 1967 to 1988, with a total availability factor of 66% [[[#bib6|6]] ]. It is very successful as a test nuclear reactor. In 1990, the Association of German Engineers (VDI) and the Society for Energy Technologies published a report titled ''AVR−Experimental High-Temperature Reactor: 21 Years of Successful Operation for a Future Energy Technology''  [ [[#bib6|6]] ]. After testing more than 10 types of fuel spheres in the AVR in the late 1980s, the detected radioactivity in the primary helium circuit was found to reach very low levels when using high-quality TRISO fuel spheres. Lessons have been learned from the earlystage HTGRs, such as AVR, thorium high-temperature nuclear reactor (THTR) in Germany, and SFV in the US. Additional measures were taken in the designs of the module HTGRs that were developed following these early units, including the German HTR-module and the US MHTGR. Such measures have been further referenced in the practice of the HTR-PM.
+The experimental reactor consortium (AVR) test pebble-bed HTGR in Germany has been in operation for 21 years, from 1967 to 1988, with a total availability factor of 66% [ [[#bib6|6]] ]. It is very successful as a test nuclear reactor. In 1990, the Association of German Engineers (VDI) and the Society for Energy Technologies published a report titled ''AVR−Experimental High-Temperature Reactor: 21 Years of Successful Operation for a Future Energy Technology''  [ [[#bib6|6]] ]. After testing more than 10 types of fuel spheres in the AVR in the late 1980s, the detected radioactivity in the primary helium circuit was found to reach very low levels when using high-quality TRISO fuel spheres. Lessons have been learned from the earlystage HTGRs, such as AVR, thorium high-temperature nuclear reactor (THTR) in Germany, and SFV in the US. Additional measures were taken in the designs of the module HTGRs that were developed following these early units, including the German HTR-module and the US MHTGR. Such measures have been further referenced in the practice of the HTR-PM.
 ==3. Progress and experience==

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 ==2. Technological innovations==
-As shown in [[#fig2|Fig. 2]] , the HTR-PM [[[#bib5|5]] ] consists of two pebble-bed reactor modules coupled with a 210 MW<sub>e</sub>  steam turbine. Each reactor module includes a reactor pressure vessel (RPV); graphite, carbon, and metallic reactor internals; a steam generator; and a main helium blower. The thermal power of one reactor module is 250 MW<sub>th</sub> , the helium temperatures at the reactor core inlet/outlet are 250/750 °C, and steam at 13.25 MPa/567 °C is produced at the steam generator outlet. [[#tbl1|Table 1]]  presents the main technical parameters of the HTR-PM.
+As shown in [[#fig2|Fig. 2]] , the HTR-PM [ [[#bib5|5]] ] consists of two pebble-bed reactor modules coupled with a 210 MW<sub>e</sub>  steam turbine. Each reactor module includes a reactor pressure vessel (RPV); graphite, carbon, and metallic reactor internals; a steam generator; and a main helium blower. The thermal power of one reactor module is 250 MW<sub>th</sub> , the helium temperatures at the reactor core inlet/outlet are 250/750 °C, and steam at 13.25 MPa/567 °C is produced at the steam generator outlet. [[#tbl1|Table 1]]  presents the main technical parameters of the HTR-PM.
 <span id='fig2'></span>
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 Each canister has a capacity of 40 000 spent fuel spheres and can be placed in the spent fuel storage building with concrete shields. Since data is lacking on metal corrosion near the sea, forced ventilation is used by air flow in a closed cycle. In a loss-of-power accident, the decay heat can be removed by the natural air circulation. The canister can also be placed in a standard LWR transport cask and be transported if necessary.
 The experimental reactor consortium (AVR) test pebble-bed HTGR in Germany has been in operation for 21 years, from 1967 to 1988, with a total availability factor of 66% [[[#bib6|6]] ]. It is very successful as a test nuclear reactor. In 1990, the Association of German Engineers (VDI) and the Society for Energy Technologies published a report titled ''AVR−Experimental High-Temperature Reactor: 21 Years of Successful Operation for a Future Energy Technology''  [ [[#bib6|6]] ]. After testing more than 10 types of fuel spheres in the AVR in the late 1980s, the detected radioactivity in the primary helium circuit was found to reach very low levels when using high-quality TRISO fuel spheres. Lessons have been learned from the earlystage HTGRs, such as AVR, thorium high-temperature nuclear reactor (THTR) in Germany, and SFV in the US. Additional measures were taken in the designs of the module HTGRs that were developed following these early units, including the German HTR-module and the US MHTGR. Such measures have been further referenced in the practice of the HTR-PM.
 ==3. Progress and experience==

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 The HTR-PM is aimed to extend nuclear energy application beyond the grid, including cogeneration, high-temperature heat utilization, and hydrogen production. After the severe accidents at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima Daiichi, the construction of this demonstration plant is also intended to prove that, in addition to improving the safety of light water reactors (LWRs), innovation can provide another solution for inherently safe nuclear energy technology.
-The world nuclear community has made great efforts to find solutions for the problem of nuclear energy safety. Of these, the modular high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (MHTGR) is one of the most innovative and challenging technologies. In the 1980s and 1990s, governmental support led to a great deal of R&D being performed on the 200 MW<sub>th</sub>  high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTR)-module of the Siemens/Interatom Company in Germany, and on the 350 MW<sub>th</sub>  MHTGR of General Atomics (GA) in the US [[[#bib1|1]] ]. These projects have been very successful in technical development; however, actual construction of the demonstration plants has not yet begun, for a variety of reasons. China and Japan constructed their own test reactors, HTR-10 and high-temperature test reactor (HTTR), around the year 2000. South Africa has been working on the pebble-bed modular reactor (PBMR) since the 1990s. In the ''A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems''  published in 2002 [ [[#bib2|2]] ], the very high temperature reactor (VHTR) was selected as one of the six candidates for Generation IV nuclear energy systems. One of the key requirements of Generation IV is to eliminate off-site emergency response during severe accidents. The outlet temperature of the VHTR was intended to be 900−1000 °C, but tends to be 700−1000 °C, causing the name to be changed to V/HTR. The US Department of Energy (DOE) conducted the Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP) according to the ''Energy Policy Act of 2005''  and is working to establish an MHTGR demonstration plant project through a government/industry partnership. The journal Science reported the work on the South African PBMR and the Chinese HTR-PM in its news focus in the August 2005 issue [ [[#bib3|3]] ].
+The world nuclear community has made great efforts to find solutions for the problem of nuclear energy safety. Of these, the modular high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (MHTGR) is one of the most innovative and challenging technologies. In the 1980s and 1990s, governmental support led to a great deal of R&D being performed on the 200 MW<sub>th</sub>  high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTR)-module of the Siemens/Interatom Company in Germany, and on the 350 MW<sub>th</sub>  MHTGR of General Atomics (GA) in the US [ [[#bib1|1]] ]. These projects have been very successful in technical development; however, actual construction of the demonstration plants has not yet begun, for a variety of reasons. China and Japan constructed their own test reactors, HTR-10 and high-temperature test reactor (HTTR), around the year 2000. South Africa has been working on the pebble-bed modular reactor (PBMR) since the 1990s. In the ''A Technology Roadmap for Generation IV Nuclear Energy Systems''  published in 2002 [ [[#bib2|2]] ], the very high temperature reactor (VHTR) was selected as one of the six candidates for Generation IV nuclear energy systems. One of the key requirements of Generation IV is to eliminate off-site emergency response during severe accidents. The outlet temperature of the VHTR was intended to be 900−1000 °C, but tends to be 700−1000 °C, causing the name to be changed to V/HTR. The US Department of Energy (DOE) conducted the Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP) according to the ''Energy Policy Act of 2005''  and is working to establish an MHTGR demonstration plant project through a government/industry partnership. The journal Science reported the work on the South African PBMR and the Chinese HTR-PM in its news focus in the August 2005 issue [ [[#bib3|3]] ].
-In China, the R&D program for the high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) of the Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology (INET) at Tsinghua University began in the mid-1970s, and accomplished the construction of the HTR-10 test reactor in the 1990s [[[#bib4|4]] ]. We are now moving forward to conduct the HTR-PM demonstration project as a technical leader in the industry. In February 2008, the 200 MW<sub>e</sub>  HTR-PM demonstration plant was approved as part of the National Major Science and Technology Projects, and was named the “Large Advanced PWR and HTR Nuclear Power Plant.” According to the roadmap report of the project, the prospects for HTR and HTR-PM development in China are: ① to be a highly efficient nuclear power technology, as a supplement of pressurized water reactor (PWR) technology; ② to be a major technology in nuclear process heat; and ③ to contribute globally through innovation in advanced nuclear technologies.
+In China, the R&D program for the high-temperature gas-cooled reactor (HTGR) of the Institute of Nuclear and New Energy Technology (INET) at Tsinghua University began in the mid-1970s, and accomplished the construction of the HTR-10 test reactor in the 1990s [ [[#bib4|4]] ]. We are now moving forward to conduct the HTR-PM demonstration project as a technical leader in the industry. In February 2008, the 200 MW<sub>e</sub>  HTR-PM demonstration plant was approved as part of the National Major Science and Technology Projects, and was named the “Large Advanced PWR and HTR Nuclear Power Plant.” According to the roadmap report of the project, the prospects for HTR and HTR-PM development in China are: ① to be a highly efficient nuclear power technology, as a supplement of pressurized water reactor (PWR) technology; ② to be a major technology in nuclear process heat; and ③ to contribute globally through innovation in advanced nuclear technologies.
 ==2. Technological innovations==

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